The First Year

[MALE VOICE]

May 1, 1789

New York Packet

Yesterday at two ‘clock was solemnly inaugurated into office our ILLUSTRIOUS PRESIDENT. The ceremony was begun by [a procession] from the Federal State-House to the President’s House. On their arrival, The President joined the procession in his carriage, and the whole procession moved through the principal streets to the State House…When they had reached the State House, the troops opened their ranks formed an avenue through which, after alighting, the President was conducted to the Senate chamber, where he was received by both branches of Congress and accompanied to the balcony or outer gallery in front of the State-House, which was decorated with a canopy and curtains of red streaked with white for the solemn occasion. In this public manner the oath of office was administered by the Chancellor of State, and the illustrious Washington there upon declared by the said Chancellor PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, amidst the repeated huzzahs and acclamations of a numerous and crowded audience.[1]

[HUZZAHS AND CHEERS]

[NARRATOR] When Washington arrived in New York for his inauguration that fateful day in April, he had already been on the road for weeks. On April 16, 1789, Washington wrote in his diary:

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] About ten o’clock I bade adieu to Mount Vernon, to private life, and to domestic felicity; and with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful sensations than I have words to express, set out for New York. [2]

[NARRATOR] The journey wasn’t cheap; Washington borrowed 600 pounds from a merchant in Alexandria to cover the cost.[3]  

Nor would it be a quick trip.

Everywhere he went, Washington met with a rousing public spectacle.

[MUSIC LYRICS] To Washington’s health for he is our glory and pride.

[NARRATOR]. Along the route, Washington rode through garlanded arches as cannons and guns burst overhead. Toasts were raised to the United States and its new Constitution.  In Baltimore, a mounted parade conducted Washington to celebrations featuring speeches, a banquet, and free-flowing wine. Crowds waving handkerchiefs met Washington in Wilmington, and in Philadelphia, thousands turned out to watch Washington arrive in the city.

Washington rode into New York surrounded by a parade of horsemen, soldiers, artillery, clergy, and citizens.[4] And on April 30, 1789, Washington was inaugurated as the first president of the United States.

[MUSIC LYRICS] Oh, long may he live, our hearts to possess, and freedom still call him her own.

[NARRATOR] The inauguration at sunrise with a military salute and ended at dark with fireworks bursting in the skies above New York. Crowds packed the streets and crowded windows for a glimpse of Washington’s ceremonial procession as it made its way to Federal Hall. There, Washington took his oath of office on the balcony in full view of all of New York. Then he retreated into the Senate Chambers of Federal Hall.

Nothing in the Constitutions requires a new president to speak upon the occasion of their inauguration. But here, to both houses of legislature, Washington would cement, however, the first of many precedents: the first inaugural address.

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] Fellow Citizens of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

No event could have filled me with greater anxieties than that of which the notification was transmitted by your order, and received on the fourteenth day of the present month. …I dwell on this prospect with every satisfaction which an ardent love for my Country can inspire: since there is no truth more thoroughly established, than that there exists in the economy and course of nature, an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness, between duty and advantage, between the genuine maxims of an honest and magnanimous policy, and the solid rewards of public prosperity and felicity.[5]

[NARRATOR] But not everyone was on board. Rhode Island and North Carolina had not yet ratified the Constitution. Opposition to a Federal Government still bubbled up in the Southern and Western extremities of the country.

And no one—not even George Washington—knew what laid ahead. In full view of the nation, Washington knew that every action he took would set a precedent. That his private life became the public purview.

Everyone wanted him to act the part of the ideal President. There was just one thing nobody knew yet:

How was a President supposed to act?

This is Inventing the Presidency, Episode 2: The First Year

[NARRATOR]

If you were to travel back in time to New York City in the 1790s, you might not recognize the place. It wasn’t yet the cultural hub of the United States—that would be Philadelphia—nor could it compete with the financial powerhouse of Boston.  

What it would become, however briefly, was the first capital of the Untied States.

A little over 33,000 people lived in the city proper, nearly a tenth of whom were enslaved. As for what today makes up the city’s famous boroughs such as Queens and Brooklyn—all were sparsely populated countryside villages. Brooklyn, while it is today the most populated part of New York City, back then, had only 1600 inhabitants, a fourth of whom were enslaved.   

English, Dutch, German, and even West African languages like Akan would have filled the streets. Fires in the 1770s left some of the most notable landmarks of the city, including Trinity Church, still in ruins. And good luck finding fresh water in the city, although if you were seeking a pint of beer, you might be in better spirits at one of its 122 taverns, ale houses, porter houses, and punch houses.

One thing you would not see is a grand presidential mansion. Construction on the White House in what is today Washington D.C. wouldn’t begin until 1792, and Washington was the only president to never reside in it.

Instead, Congress rented a home from local merchant named Samuel Osgood at 3 Cherry Street. It was considered at the time the finest available home in New York City, although it would prove rather confined for Washington, his wife, two grandchildren, free white servants, enslaved laborers, and the host of secretaries who would rotate in and out of Washington’s household over the course of his presidency. Washington’s step-grandson would later recall that the house was so crowded that three of Washington’s secretaries shared one room.

Congress spent $8,000 outfitting the house to be fit for a President. The niece of Samuel Osgood described it to her friend Kitty Wistar:

[SALLY ROBINSON] Every room is furnished in the most elegant manner. I went the morning before the General's arrival to look at it. The best of furniture in every room, and the greatest quantity of plate and china I ever saw; the whole of the first and second stories is papered and the floors covered with the richest kinds of Turkey and Wilton carpets. There is scarcely anything talked about now but General Washington and the Palace.[6]

[NARRATOR] It took a month for Martha to join George, accompanied by their two grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis—called Nelly—and George Washington Parke Custis—known as Washy. These were the two younger children of John Parke Custis, Martha’s son from her first marriage, who had died during the War.

Nelly was just ten years old and Washy only eight when they arrived in New York. Although not biologically related to Washington, they called him their “Grandpapa.”

New York was a grand new experience for the young children, who had grown up in the rural landscapes of Mount Vernon. Mrs. Washington and the children were greeted by a salute and crowds of people welcoming them to the city, not unlike George’s own welcome procession. In a letter to her niece Frances Bassett Washington, Martha wrote on June the 8^th, 1789.

[MARTHA WASHINGTON] Dear little Washington seemed to be lost in amazement at the great parade that was made for us. Nelly is a little wild creature and spends her time at the windows looking at carriages passing by, which is new to her.[7]  

[NARRATOR] Martha and the children were not the only ones living in the Presidential household. Washington’s secretaries also lived with the family. These included Washington’s friend and poet David Humphreys, Washington’s nephew Robert Lewis, and the former aide-de-camp William Jackson.

Also accompanying the Washington family were the enslaved household members. These included Moll, Austin, Giles, Paris, Christopher Sheels, Ona Judge, Hercules Posey, and Richmond, Hercules’ son. Remember the names Ona Judge and Hercules Posey. They’ll be important later.

Over the course of the presidency, between 9 and 13 enslaved laborers lived with the Washingtons.

Here is Ramin Ganeshram, Executive Director of Westport Museum for History and Culture, and author of The General's Cook.

[RAMIN]

For the most part, these enslaved people were largely owned by his wife Martha. And so just to kind of clarify that, Martha Washington had been previously married to Daniel Parke Custis who died. And when he died, he left her a considerable estate that included many enslaved people, and those enslaved people remained essentially the property of that estate available for her use and to pass along to her children and grandchildren.

Here are nine enslaved people doing works like cook, ladies’ maid. Working at the carriages, what we call a Postilions or drivers of the carriages. But in total, it was actually about 13 people, not all at one time, but a rotation of about 13 people.

[NARRATOR] It was a full house at 3 Cherry Street. But the house would serve as more than just a residence. It also served as the executive office. Long before there was the oval office, there was the spare room at 3 Cherry Street, where Washington and his secretaries—and later his cabinet—would meet to complete their work.

And there was much work to be done.

One of Washington’s first and most pressing acts was the creation of a federal workforce. Each week, Washington wrote letters to Congress with nominations for dozens of new positions. He has to create a Treasury from scratch, a judiciary from scratch, Departments of War and State from scratch. He nominated the first Supreme Court, with John Jay as its chief justice. He appointed ambassadors, district attorneys, military officers, postmasters, and even lighthouse keepers.

At this point in the presidency, there was no presidential cabinet. Washington had almost no advisors to fall back upon. Recall that during the Constitutional Convention, whether or not the President would be allowed a Council was a hot issue.

[JAMES WILSON] A council more often serves to cover up than prevent corruption!

[NARRATOR] At this point in the Presidency, Washington exercised a more reserved approach. He was content to let the legislature do their work without interference from the Executive. And work the legislature did. While the Constitution successfully created a functioning government, much was still to be decided.

Even how to address the president became a matter of debate that had to be settled by a Congressional Committee.

Sara Georgini, Series Editor of the Adams Papers at the Massachusetts Historical Society, explains:

[SARA GEORGINI] So essentially, what happens is that there’s some confusion about what to call the President. We’ve never seen a President on the world stage. We have George Washington coming in, for his swearing in, no one’s quite sure what to do. The Senate and the House, both form committees to think through what they want to do. The Senate, Adams tries to like kind of railroad it a little bit. So, he thinks that perhaps Washington should be referred to as something a little grandiose, something that has a little pomp to it: His Elective Majesty, His Mightiness, his Highness. All of these sound, pretty darn Royal and that’s not going to play well.

Now, Adam’s argument is that you need something that elevates an American leader to the same stature as the European leaders that he’s going to deal with. This is a question of legitimacy. How can you credential the United States’ number one Executive in a way that he can effectively negotiate?  His thinking is also a little skewed to what he thinks about the rest of the Government.

The House is having none of it. This sounds terribly pro-aristocratic, terribly pro-royal, nothing that we just fought a war to end. So it’s defeated. And we end up with very simple plain homespun, President of the United States of America, which I believe is also Washington’s first choice.

[NARRATOR] Washington wasn’t the only person figuring out a brand-new role. Just as Washington was learning what it meant to be president, John Adams had to determine what it meant to be vice-president.

[SARA GEORGINI] So essentially, the major role of the Vice President is to be President of the Senate. That is explicitly what you're meant to do. What other role you may have, is not as clearly defined in the Constitution at all.  That is regarded as merely a Presidential focus. So things like appointments, foreign policy, domestic matters, judicial appointments, things like that, that's laid out pretty well, because the focus is on what's going to happen for the President and how far those powers are going to extend.

But the Constitution is pretty quiet on what the Vice President should say and do and how he should do it. And in that there is both a great deal of neglect. But there's a great deal of opportunity.

Washington is the soldier, Adams is the statesman. And there is some disparity there to how the two of them think about leading the country, but they know they have to team up to do it. Adams always knows probably never more so than in the first year that he is constantly on the wing in case Washington fails. Washington is so ill, he nearly dies twice his first year in office. And every moment that Washington shows some sign of personal physical weakness, Adams is terrified because he knows he will have to step into that role at a moment's notice.

[NARRATOR]: That’s right. Before Washington’s work could begin, it almost ended entirely. Just a few short months after his inauguration, Washington suffered a violent illness—one so severe that he and many around him feared it might be his last. 

[TRAILER] For more on early American history, visit MountVernon.org, where you’ll find articles, videos, and quizzes on George Washington and eighteenth-century Life. Plus, take a virtual tour of George Washington’s Virginia estate Mount Vernon. And play our online game Be Washington to test your leadership skills during pivotal moments of history. Sign up for our email newsletter to get history content delivered to your inbox twice monthly. Step into George Washington’s World at MountVernon.org.

[TRAILER] These are the books that helped win a revolution.

“So these Germans write about they could capture an American officer, and there might not be any food in their haversacks but there’s books.”

These are the accounts that imagined a new nation.

“It really gives you a peek into this early republic. He calls it the nascent United States, and he’s fascinated by what he’s seeing.”

These are the ideas that shaped the first President of the United States.

“Yes, there’s lots in the Constitution then that had to be figured out, and this is why Washington is creating precedents in almost every he does.”

The George Washington Presidential Library invites you to step inside its vaults and learn about the treasures stored within its archives.

In the podcast Secrets of Washington’s Archives, you’ll get a rare peek into the pages of Washington’s life and accomplishments through the books and special collections held at the George Washington Presidential Library. Plus, check out the video companion, where you can see these treasures for yourself.

“I love how it can represent such a broad piece of history.”

You can listen on your favorite podcast app. Learn more at GeorgeWashingtonPodcast.com.

[NARRATOR] Recall that the Presidency was designed with Washington in mind. That its limits and liberties were set with the expectation that he would be President, that he would be the first, that he would establish the precedent that all other presidents would follow.

Now imagine just a few short months after his inauguration, President Washington’s life was on the line.

[MALE VOICE] June 27 1789. Boston. The Massachusetts Centinel.

The public anxiety has been conspicuously apparent, from some accounts received from New-York, which have mentioned the indisposition of our beloved president. That about the 16th inst. His Excellency was attacked with a slow fever, which continued on him for several days, and was at periods attended with some alarming symptoms.

[NARRATOR] According to accounts from the Washington family and his New York physician Dr. Samuel Bard, the alarming symptoms reported in the newspapers were described as a painful wound on his thigh that made it difficult for Washington to walk. Various sources describe it as a “tumor” “anthrax” or “malignant carbuncle.” This likely means that he was afflicted by a painful, infected lesion.

The fever had already set in. Washington himself may have expected to die from it. The biography of Dr. Bard claims that during his examination Washington faced his physician and stated:

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] Do not flatter me with vain hopes; I am not afraid to die, and therefore, can bear the worst.[8]

[NARRATOR] Dr. Bard prescribed surgery, and Washington underwent a procedure to cut the lesion from his leg. In the eighteenth century, there was no anesthetic to numb the pain. Turpentine or alcohol might be used to clean the wound, or maggots might be introduced to eat away the dead skin, a process known as debridement. With no effective means of antiseptic, infection was always a risk with surgery. The techniques Dr. Bard used are unknown, but it was doubtless an excruciating, painful procedure.  

But it worked. Washington slept on his right side for a while, but he quickly returned to his duties.

This illness was not the only scare of Washington’s eight years in office. The stress of the Presidency coupled with long-term medical issues meant that Washington’s health would continue to be a source of anxiety for his family and his constituents. But Washington was determined not to be bedridden for long.

By October of that year, Washington was well enough to depart for New England. [9] 

The trip to New England was a significant one for Washington. It was the first of many tours of the United States. Beginning in the first year of his Presidency in 1789, and continuing to 1791, Washington toured the country, paying special attention to states that had ratified the Constitution but had not benefited from a visit during the inaugural journey.

Here is Dr. Patrick Spero, Executive Director of the George Washington Presidential Library.

[PATRICK SPERO] One of the most important parts of Washington's Presidency, not just for his Presidency, but for the nation itself were his Presidential tours. Washington knew that the Constitution itself was an extremely controversial document. Some historians have speculated that if you've done a straight up Democratic poll of Americans that the Constitution probably would have failed. People in the Eastern seaboard and the cities, they were more open to this idea of a stronger Federal Government. But the further West you got, the further south and rural you got, the more opposition you'd find for the Constitution. And one of the great fears was this idea of the Presidency itself. Critics said, this is just recreating the British Empire, the very thing we threw off, we now have people in the East trying to foist this on us.

And Washington realized that because of his reputation, he could personally help establish support for the Constitution and for this office of the Presidency. And so he traveled throughout New England, and then down the Eastern seaboard in the South, and then back up through the frontier, literally bringing the Presidency and the Federal Government to the people so that they could make a direct connection with Washington and with the Presidency. And at each one of his stops is this incredible ritual that's played out where the townspeople will offer up a speech that talks about their beliefs, their political beliefs, their beliefs in Republican Government and what it meant. And Washington would then respond back with his own, and what they're doing there is solidifying the idea that this Federal Government shares your same beliefs that this is a Republican form of Government.

[NARRATOR] But Washington didn’t visit every state—at least not at first. When he first became President in 1789, Rhode Island had not yet ratified the Constitution. Once Rhode Island had successfully ratified it in 1790, Washington took a new tour.

Every action Washington took, including these tours, was held up against the mirror of the monarchy. The Press picked apart his every action. Sometimes with praise but increasingly with censure.

With the eyes of the nation ever watchful, Washington carefully crafted his public image to fit an ideal for the new Republic’s leader—even if nobody quite yet knew what such a leader looked like.

Dr. Sandra Moats, Professor Emeritus of History at University of Wisconsin Parkside and author of two books on Washington’s Presidency, describes these attempts. 

[SANDRA MOATS] How do you strike that balance between accessibility and also a dignity? And you know, he’s a formal, serious guy. And how do you do that? Obviously, he’s not a king, he’s not a monarch. And that connection between him and the citizenry are so important. He sends a query out to his cabinet to a couple of prominent people and say, How do I conduct myself as president, and lets them all report back in the best way.

Hamilton’s response is hilarious. It’s like, never go out, never be seen, have a, like a prime minister type to kind of keep your ears on—Hamilton’s thinking of himself. And whereas others are like, no, no, you need to be seen, you need to interact with people, you need to make some public appearances. People need to see you.

[NARRATOR] Washington was inclined to agree. With input from Hamilton, he decided on a weekly public gathering. These were known as the levees.

[MOATS] Levees are … they’re sort of like a cocktail party. So it’s invited guests, they’re relatively small, maybe 20-30 people, refreshments are served. But unlike a cocktail party, where everyone’s interacting with each other, what happens in a levee is everyone stands kind of circularly in the room. And then Washington walks by, and greets each of them individually. And it’s a way for him to meet members of Congress, prominent people, business people. From all reports, these events were deathly dull, because again, you can’t interact with each other. You can only interact with Washington, and only when he’s speaking to you. But it was a way for him to be seen. It was a way for him to interact with people.

[NARRATOR] In addition, Martha would also hold her own weekly audience for the women of the city, known as her “Drawing Rooms.” These would also take place at 3 Cherry Street and provided a slightly less formal way of mingling with the Washingtons.

Washy would later write of a humorous incident that occurred during one of his grandmother’s drawing rooms:

[GEORGE WASHINGTON PARKE CUSTIS] Mrs. Washington’s drawing-rooms, on Friday nights, were attended by the grace and beauty of New York. On one of these occasions an incident occurred which might have been attended by serious consequences. Owing to the lowness of the ceiling in the drawing-room, the ostrich features in the head-dress of Miss McIvers, a belle of New York, took fire from the chandelier, to the no small alarm of the company. Major Jackson, aide-de-camp to the president, with great presence of mind, and equal gallantry, flew to the rescue of the lady, and by clapping the burning plumes between his hands, extinguished the flame, and the drawing-room went on as usual.[10]

[NARRATOR] At the beginning of his Presidency, few dared to criticize the beloved General. But over the course of his presidency, criticism of his public image would grow. His levees would be called the “mock pageantry of monarchy.” [11] We’ll discuss more of that in a later episode.

But in 1789, when Washington was first starting out, he seemed entirely above reproach. At least, few dared to openly criticize his hallowed position.

Washington refused to let this rosy reception go to his head. In November of 1789, on his tour to New Hampshire, he said to the people of Portsmouth:

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] I fear the fond partiality of my countrymen has too highly appreciated my past exertions, and formed too sanguine anticipations of my future services—If the former have been successful, much of the success should be ascribed to those who laboured with me in the common cause. [12]

[NARRATOR] Yet with all of these tours, levees, and speeches, Washington not only had a duty to his people but to the representatives of his people as well. In the first year of his Presidency, Washington avoided interfering too much with the affairs of Congress. Much like with the Constitutional Convention, he may have believed it simply his duty to “preside” rather than to dictate.

But while that relationship would undergo dramatic change in the following years, Washington was consciously thinking about the extent and limits of his role since the earliest days of his presidency. Nowhere is this more evident than in his first State of the Union Address. 

The Constitution states that the President “shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.” There was no formal requirements or instructions for such a state of the union. So in 1790, Washington sat down to study. His textbook? The Constitution itself.

In the margins of the Constitution, Washington scribbled small notes about the powers and requirements of the presidency. For example, in Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution it states that:

[MALE VOICE] “The President shall be commander in chief of the army and navy, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments…he shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present occur.”

[NARRATOR] Beside this, Washington wrote:

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] President Powers[13]

[NARRATOR] But in Article II, Section 3, where it states

[MALE VOICE] “He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the union and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may on extraordinary occasions convene both houses, or either of them; and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper.”

[NARRATOR] Washington writes the word:

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] Required.  

[NARRATOR] These notes reveal a conscientious and deliberate consideration of the limits and requirements of the presidency. What is a power—something that Washington may do—versus what is a requirement—something that Washington must do.

One thing was at least clear. Washington was required to provide Congress with a state of the union. So on January 8, 1790, Washington delivers the first State of the Union address.

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] Fellow Citizens of the Senate, and House of Representatives.

I embrace with great satisfaction the opportunity, which now presents itself, of congratulating you on the present favorable prospects of our public affairs.

[NARRATOR] In his speech, Washington asserts the need for a strong standing army for the defense of the nation, not to fend off European powers but to support the United States’ expansion westward. Washington also encouraged the development of American currency, agriculture, industry, and education. Some of his advisements would not come to fruition; his ask of a national university would fizzle out. Others, however, would be implemented into law: He asked Congress to expedite the legal terms for naturalization of foreign citizens, which would lead to the Naturalization Acts of 1790 and 1795, and to invest him with the powers needed to negotiate with foreign powers.

[GEORGE WASHINGTON] The welfare of our Country is the great object to which our cares and efforts ought to be directed. And I shall derive great satisfaction from a co-operation with you, in the pleasing though arduous task of ensuring to our fellow Citizens the blessings, which they have a right to expect, from a free, efficient and equal Government.

[NARRATOR] Washington knew the work had just begun. For now, Washington yields to Congress, trusting their ability to guide the nascent country. But Washington’s hands-off approach will not last for long. For there are storms on the horizon for the young nation.

Next time on Inventing the Presidency…

Washington pays his first visit to the Senate to seek advice. It would also be his last.

[LINDSAY CHERVINSKY] Washington stood up and he yelled, "This defeats every purpose of my being here!" Except louder and bigger and scarier because this was like the most famous man in the world

[NARRATOR] And tensions brew on the western frontiers of the United States, signaling turmoil for the nation.

[COLIN CALLOWAY] Land is of course what it's all about, and one of the givens is that the United States is a nation built on Indian land.

[NARRATOR] Plus, Washington forms one of the most significant institutions of the United States Presidency.

[SANDRA MOATS] And of course, the cabinet consists of the famous rivals, Hamilton and Jefferson, who are who are the two leading members. Washington writes to both Hamilton and Jefferson basically saying to each of them, I expect you guys to both be constructive and productive in these meetings. So he sort of gives them a warning at the outset.

[NARRATOR] Inventing the Presidency is a production of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association and CD Squared Productions. This episode was written and directed by Dr. Anne Fertig. Audio production was done by Curt Dahl of CD Squared Productions. Production Assistant was Jacob Cameron. Narration by Tom Plott, with additional voice acting by Dan Shippey, Matt Mattingly, James Ambuske, Adam Erby, Rachel Samson, and Betty Brown. Additional Factchecking was performed by Dr. Alexandra Montgomery, Manager of the Center for Digital History. Our logo was created by Kaitlyn Prange.

We would like to thank our contributing scholars to this episode: Ramin Ganeshram, Dr. Sara Georgini, Dr. Patrick Spero, and Dr. Sandra Moats.

To hear more great podcasts from Mount Vernon and the George Washington Presidential Library, visit GeorgeWashingtonPodcast.com or go to www.MountVernon.org.

Footnotes

[1] “A Sketch of the Proceedings of Congress, Monday, April 30^th.” New York Packet (New York, New York), no. … , May 1, 1789: 2.

[2] “[Diary entry: 16 April 1789],” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-05-02-0005-0001-0001.

[3] “From George Washington to Richard Conway, 4 March 1789,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-01-02-0272.

[4] "New-York, April 24." Pennsylvania Packet (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), no. 3195, April 28, 1789: [3]. Readex: America's Historical Newspapers.

[5] “First Inaugural Address: Final Version, 30 April 1789,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-02-02-0130-0003.

[6] Sally Robinson to Kitty Wistar, April 30, 1789, quoted in Anne H. Wharton, “Washington’s New York Residence in 1789,” Lippincott’s Monthly Magazine  43 (May 1889):742.

[7] “Martha Washington to Frances Bassett Washington (Lear),” New York, June the 8^th, 1789

[8] McVickar, John. A Domestic Narrative of the life of Samuel Bard. New York: A. Paul, 1822, p. 136.

[9] “From George Washington to James McHenry, 3 July 1789,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-03-02-0052; George Washington Parke Custis. Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington. New York, NY: Derby & Jackson, 1860: 398

[10] Custis, Recollections, 396

[11] "[Editor; Gazette; United States; President's; Tuesday; Saint Washington's]." Aurora General Advertiser (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), no. 1467, August 22, 1795: [3]. Readex: America's Historical Newspapers.

[12] “From George Washington to the Citizens of Portsmouth, 2 November 1789,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-04-02-0192. 

[13] To see Washington’s handwritten annotations, click here for the full digitized copy of the original.